The laptop or gaming console is the
new method of attaining a liberal arts education in the sense that one can be
exposed to and familiarized with a plethora of subjects. 
For example,
while learning how to input data in spreadsheets, a student can learn
mathematical concepts without having a grasp of formulas and laws of
mathematics. One can also develop management and leadership principles by
developing basic computer functions to meet real world needs. Gaming
eliminates the old methods of memorization instead building on existing
knowledge to create new ideas and creativity
For example,
while learning how to input data in spreadsheets, a student can learn
mathematical concepts without having a grasp of formulas and laws of
mathematics. One can also develop management and leadership principles by
developing basic computer functions to meet real world needs. Gaming
eliminates the old methods of memorization instead building on existing
knowledge to create new ideas and creativity
Alternate Reality Gaming (ARG) is an
attempt to imagine a world that is different from the one that currently
exists. McGonigal (2011) observes gamers play A World Without Oil
in his research to come up with strategic ideas to real social problems.
Gaming is a tool to come up with solutions to potential hazards.
The virtual world enables strategy without necessarily attaining real
life experience.
By using a virtual image, probabilistic literacy or comprehension is
possible without mastery of functions, variables, and numbers in an analytical
sense. Gamification is a manifestation of how learners conceptualize.
.Han (2015) defines gamification as “using game design elements in
non-game contexts to motivate and increase user activity and retention” (p.
258). While mostly used in employee training and online education, Han
(2015) explores the elements of gaming that attract students.
Clark and Ernst (2009)
explore the benefits of educational technology in Gaming in Technology
Education. “The study of gaming can teach life skills for the
twenty-first century that employers want...these include analytical thinking,
team building, multitasking, and problem solving under duress” (p. 21).
They observe students making the decision whether to learn through data
driven or concept driven models. “Concept-driven modeling, the one most
associated with game art and design, allows students to design and integrate
two-dimensional, static, or animated graphics” (Clark & Ernst, 2009, p.
22). This is conceding the idea that the modern student learns primarily
by understanding concepts before fully comprehending abstract ideas.
Clark and Ernst (2009) believe that gaming is a method in which to capture
student interest and provide sufficient scaffolding to build on a gamer’s
self-interest and motivation. Clark and Ernst (2009) conclude that
technology is integral to the learning of the modern student. Educators
have to be able to harness it into their teaching methods to facilitate
learning.
Bellochi (2012) explores the world
of ARG which allows gamers to explore and strategize a world that doesn’t
currently exist. Variables are added or taken away from a virtual world
to run simulations and come up with solutions. Alternate realities create
new solutions to future hazards. For example, gamers with no biochemistry
background were able to use ARG to conceptualize the design of M-PMV retroviral
protease to assist in AIDS research (Khatib et al., 2011). This was a
quandary that had stumped seasoned biochemist but the power of gaming enabled
gamers to solve this issue. “Our aim was for Foldit players to use these
tools to solve real-world problems” (p. 1175). ARG can be used to advance
the knowledge of STEM and Social Sciences.
Jean Piajet is the founder of
Constructionism (Papert, 1993). It is an extension of Constructivism by
taking learning that occurs inside the learner’s head and manifests it into
something tangible or able to be shared. It builds off internal curiosity
to spur creativity and learn without being taught.
Papert (1993) stresses building from
material. He also stresses physical computing which the ability to embed
interactivity or intelligence into objects for everyday usage. This can
be manifested in the form of Legos or robotics kits. Papert (1993)
aspires to alter traditional relationships with computers and gaming. “In
the LOGO environment the relationship is reversed: The child, even at preschool
ages, in control: The child programs the computer.” (p. 19) 
The “making tinkering, and
engineering” concept (Martinez and Stager, 2013) applies to learning through
gaming with the gamer using the device to exercises the processes in this
theory. Games allow for the gamer to “make” solutions to potential real
world problems. Curiosity allows for tinkering or ideas and hypotheses to
eventually create something (engineer) tangible.
Barab, Gresalfi, and Ingram-Goble
(2010) have developed a theory of transformational play is based on Dewey and Bentley’s
Theory of Transaction (1960). It is a continuum of shared knowledge.
Barab et al. suggest that transformational play is a transaction of
knowledge among gamers and game designers. “Our design therefore
positions learners as active decision makers who use their understanding to
inquire into particular circumstances and change them” (p. 526). To be
actively involved in transactional play, the learner must take on the role of
protagonist, while employing conceptual understanding, to transform a problem-based
fictional context (p. 526). The player’s understanding of content as well
as self to address social problems are important aspects of transformational
play.
Barab et al. also conclude that to
achieve transformational play, it requires a balance of tensions. Quality
of content must be tempered against quality of context and quality of person.
The gamer (quality of person) is the wildcard. “A sense of
detachment from the story can allow for more objective analysis and reflection,
although it may also breed apathy and disengagement from the lesson.” (p. 533)
“If students have no embedded role,
their experience may become impoverished, with a focus on memorization and
grade attainment as opposed to meaningful content application” (p. 533).
There have been numerous studies that demonstrate significant learning
gains through transformational play (Barab, Dodge et al, 2010; Warren,
Dondlinger & Barab, 2009), however, very little of the research speaks
specifically to how gamers learn.
An Exploratory Review of Design
Principles in Constructivist Gaming Learning Environments (Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009) is an observation of a qualitative study focusing on
12 design principles: Probing, Distributed, Multiple Routes, Practice,
Psychosocial Moratorium, Regime of Competence, Self-Knowledge, Collective
Knowledge, Engaging, User Interface Ease of Use, On Demand and Just-in-Time
Tutorial, and Achievement. Players were observed playing Massively
Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs).
Principle 1, Probing Principle,
encourages the student to create hypotheses and test them. In gaming, a
player may come up with a strategy to overcome a difficult level or perform a
task. Through trial and error, this hypothesis is tested therefore
creating knowledge.
In Principle 2, Distributed
Principle, “learners should find growth and knowledge in their interactions
with other learners, technology, context, objects, and tools”. This is
not much different from learning in a physical environment other than a virtual
one is presumably safer. But the interaction is what creates an
environment of learning.
In regards to gaming and learning,
Multiple Routes Principle (Principle 3) speaks to the essence of it.
“There should be more than one way for learners to progress, encouraging
them to make decisions and solve problems” (Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009, p.
290) Gaming makes learning a fluid transaction where students are not
just subject to learning by rote or accessing knowledge through a step action
drill. Specifically, proper gaming allows for different styles of
learning. Problems can be approached in different manners for successful
results. The narrative, non-player characters (NPCs), and interaction
with objects within the game allow for gamers to solve problems.
The Practice Principle (Principle 4)
allows for a learner to try out new tactics without necessarily failing in the
game. This allows for a player to learn new things. The gamer will
not be subject to losing points or starting from the beginning.
Principle 5, Psychosocial Moratorium
Principle, is similar to the 4th in that it speaks to the ability to try new
ideas in the form of practice before trying in a game setting where points can
be won or lost.
Principle 6, Regime of Competence
Principle, is the scaffolding in gaming. “Learners should be challenged
to push beyond their comfort/ability zone, but not to an extent that is unsafe
or unattainable” (Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009, p. 291). A game can
assess in game performance to allow for some difficulty without totally diminishing
the confidence of the gamer. Once the gamer has shown an adequate level
of mastery, he/she can progress to more challenging levels.
Principle 7 is the Self-Knowledge
Principle. It is one of self-assessment for future reference.
“Players should learn about themselves and their current and potential
capacities” (Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009, p. 291). Self-knowledge allows
for gamers to obtain knowledge and competency from completing tasks.
In Principle 8, the Collective
Knowledge Principle, players accumulate knowledge by observing the play of
others. En masse, they build a “repository of useful knowledge”. As
games have a following, there are discussion boards and other virtual venues
for correspondence on strategy and ideas on in game tactics. Interaction
allows for a broad knowledge in MMOGs.
The Engaging Principle is what
compels a gamer to play. It is a non-learning principle but important
nevertheless. The premise is to make education fun and not an arduous
chore that requires cajoling. To adequately achieve the intent of this
principle, one must know the target audience. For example, there are
MMOGs that focus on combat situations or fighting situations to appeal to young
males.
Principle 10, User-Interface Ease of
Use Principle is a common sense approach to learning in gaming but can be
forgotten if not assessed properly. “A poorly designed use interface (UI)
will frustrate and anger players, regardless of the type of game”. The
controller or arrows on a keyboard to maneuver of the games characters must
logically move in the direction it is moving. Sometimes, it requires
specific knowledge to games. For example, Nintendo games in the late
1980s had a “goofy foot” approach to maneuvering characters performing
skateboard or surfing functions which would be counterintuitive to someone that
has never physically performed such a function outside of virtual gaming.
The goofy foot concept applies to
Principle 11, On-Demand and Just-in-Time Tutorial Principle. “Game
tutorials should aid players in learning the game mechanics and user interface
while they are playing, exploring, or interacting with the environment”.
While the goofy foot concept is unique to skateboarding, it is not
necessarily exclusive. Someone that has never performed such a function
can learn and apply it physically and virtually. In sports games, a
similar approach is used in practice games or changing the level of skill from
novice to expert. “Make the tutorial provide feedback to players, when
mistakes are being made” (p. 292). Feedback is rather immediate in sports
games. Success and failure is manifested in terms of points, penalties,
fouls, etc.
Principle 12, the Achievement
Principle, are the perpetual and visible awards in the process of gaming.
The notion is that by achieving mastery, the gamer will want to continue
to build on mastered skills.
Rosario and Widmeyer (2009)
performed a study on five MMOGs and two educational games testing the 12
aforementioned principles. What was concluded was that not all principles
are supported at the same level. While not allowing all principles to be
equally applied, MMOGs and educational games allowed for students to learn in a
highly engaging safe environment to test hypotheses. The study is lacking
in quantitative analysis. Rosario and Widmeyer suggest that more studies
will be needed including more games to have statistical significance. In
the observation, the sample is limited to one student from undergrad, masters,
and doctoral level of education.
Han (2015) explores gaming and
learning theory in Gamified Pedagogy: From Gaming Theory to Creating a
Self-Motivated Learning Environment in Studio Art. He explores ways
to increase student interest in learning three dimensional (3-D) animation.
Han develops a theory of gamified pedagogy through his research.
The premise is that students are able to perform advanced tasks by
developing basic skills.
Gamification is “using game design
elements in non-game contexts to motivate and increase user activity and
retention” (Deterring et al., 2011). While primarily used in training
employees, Han uses gamification to come up with solutions to improve learner
engagement with the curriculum. Specifically he asks, “What are the
gaming elements that cause student attraction to gaming and makes students
willing to spend so much time on gaming?” and “what is gamified pedagogy?” (p.
258).
Han concludes that gaming pedagogy
consists of seven elements which are:
1.
The teacher should use a spiral
curriculum.
2.
The teacher and student should set
clear short-term goals.
3.
The students should have the chance
to resubmit their projects.
4.
The students should be able to learn
at their own pace.
5.
The teacher should provide a safety
net for students to practice without embarrassment.
6.
The teacher should provide a space
for students to establish a learning a community.
7. The teacher should provide a
showcase for students to exhibit their own selected works.
Han also concludes that art studio
courses are suitable for the application of gamified pedagogy. All seven
elements can be utilized to encourage self-motivation in students.
Becker (2007) explores the
technology gap between students and their instructors. Citing a lack of
preparation teachers are using technology solely for administrative purposes
and not to enhance learning or the educational environment. “It is
critical to prepare teachers to use technology effectively in the classroom and
developments in technology continue to move faster than almost any other field”
(Becker, 2007, p. 480). Becker suggests that gaming be used a tool to
enhance classroom instruction. Gaming can be used to bridge technological
gaps between teacher and student. “The current generation is growing up
with a pastime that demands interaction.” (p. 485).
Becker uses FIFA
World Cup Soccer to facilitate interaction in an English as a Second
Language classroom. The informal yet responsive atmosphere makes it
possible for students and teacher to interact in a learning environment that is
familiar yet has enough scaffolding to encourage development among all gamers
Design-based research (Barab &
Squire, 2004) seems to be a natural evolution of transformational play to
capture the essence of learning through gaming. The main theme to
design-based research is to move beyond the understanding of leaning as it
naturally occurs. (Barab et al, 2010) to creating interventions that alter
existing conditions presumably for the better. Advances in technology are
creating new parameters by which transformational play can communicate learning
and conceptualizing abstract ideas.
There needs to be more longitudinal
research and observations in a variety of venues and formats to formulate
grounded theory on how the modern day learner/gamer acquires and processes
knowledge, epistemologically. “Future studies should be conducted at
other institutions and with learners in other developmental classifications”
(Burgess & Ice, 2011, p. 446).
Common themes in learning through
gaming are safe learning environment, proper scaffolding, and creation of games
that capture and maintain interest. In the gaming environment, the
players must feel safe enough to take chances and explore. Failure may
occur, but it is not detrimental to the point that a player no longer desires
to continue playing or is required to start at the beginning or a point that
makes taking chances prohibitive. Gaming has to also be able to develop
gamers by having programs that are challenging yet enhance skills.
Game/user interface must have proper aesthetics to capture the interest
of gamers. Games that have educational value should not be “educational
games”. By learning through gaming, the idea is that learning can occur
in non-tradition learning environments. One does not have to be in a
classroom to achieve CsÃkszentmihályi Flow (2014) in a classroom. This is
possible through gaming.
References
Barab, S., &
Squire, K. (2004). Design-Based Research: Putting a Stake in the Ground.
Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1-14. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1301_1
Barab, S. A.,
Gresalfi, M., & Ingram-Goble, A. (2010). Transformational Play: Using Games
to Position Person, Content, and Context. Educational Researcher, 39(7),
525-536. doi:10.3102/0013189x10386593
Barab, S. A.,
Gresalfi, M., Dodge, T., & Ingram-Goble, A. (2010). Narratizing Disciplines
and Disciplinizing Narratives. International Journal of Gaming and
Computer-Mediated Simulations, 2(1), 17-30. doi:10.4018/jgcms.2010010102
Becker, K. (2007).
Digital game-based learning once removed: Teaching teachers. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 38(3), 478-488. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00711.x
Bellochi, A. (2012).
Practical considerations for integrating alternate reality gaming into science
education. Teaching Science, 58(4), December, 43-46.
Burgess, M. L., &
Ice, P. (2011). Optimal Experience in Virtual Environments among College Level
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429-451. doi:10.2190/ec.44.4.d
Burgess, M. L., &
Ice, P. (2011). Optimal Experience in Virtual Environments among College Level
Developmental Readers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 44(4),
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