Edtech and Gaming

The laptop or gaming console is the new method of attaining a liberal arts education in the sense that one can be exposed to and familiarized with a plethora of subjects.  For example, while learning how to input data in spreadsheets, a student can learn mathematical concepts without having a grasp of formulas and laws of mathematics.  One can also develop management and leadership principles by developing basic computer functions to meet real world needs.  Gaming eliminates the old methods of memorization instead building on existing knowledge to create new ideas and creativity

Alternate Reality Gaming (ARG) is an attempt to imagine a world that is different from the one that currently exists.  McGonigal (2011) observes gamers play A World Without Oil in his research to come up with strategic ideas to real social problems.  Gaming is a tool to come up with solutions to potential hazards.  The virtual world enables strategy without necessarily attaining real life experience.

Gaming allows for the modern day learner to conceptualize the abstract.  Prior to a society where access to computers was not common, the need to learn abstract concepts was necessary to progress to the mental process of visualization or conceptualization.  That is no longer a requirement.  Software can now perform that function or compute data and graph it into something visual (and of utility).  

By using a virtual image, probabilistic literacy or comprehension is possible without mastery of functions, variables, and numbers in an analytical sense.  Gamification is a manifestation of how learners conceptualize.  .Han (2015) defines gamification as “using game design elements in non-game contexts to motivate and increase user activity and retention” (p. 258).  While mostly used in employee training and online education, Han (2015) explores the elements of gaming that attract students.  

  Clark and Ernst (2009) explore the benefits of educational technology in Gaming in Technology Education.  “The study of gaming can teach life skills for the twenty-first century that employers want...these include analytical thinking, team building, multitasking, and problem solving under duress” (p. 21).  They observe students making the decision whether to learn through data driven or concept driven models.  “Concept-driven modeling, the one most associated with game art and design, allows students to design and integrate two-dimensional, static, or animated graphics” (Clark & Ernst, 2009, p. 22).  This is conceding the idea that the modern student learns primarily by understanding concepts before fully comprehending abstract ideas.  Clark and Ernst (2009) believe that gaming is a method in which to capture student interest and provide sufficient scaffolding to build on a gamer’s self-interest and motivation.  Clark and Ernst (2009) conclude that technology is integral to the learning of the modern student.  Educators have to be able to harness it into their teaching methods to facilitate learning.

Bellochi (2012) explores the world of ARG which allows gamers to explore and strategize a world that doesn’t currently exist.  Variables are added or taken away from a virtual world to run simulations and come up with solutions.  Alternate realities create new solutions to future hazards.  For example, gamers with no biochemistry background were able to use ARG to conceptualize the design of M-PMV retroviral protease to assist in AIDS research (Khatib et al., 2011).  This was a quandary that had stumped seasoned biochemist but the power of gaming enabled gamers to solve this issue.  “Our aim was for Foldit players to use these tools to solve real-world problems” (p. 1175).  ARG can be used to advance the knowledge of STEM and Social Sciences.

Jean Piajet is the founder of Constructionism (Papert, 1993).  It is an extension of Constructivism by taking learning that occurs inside the learner’s head and manifests it into something tangible or able to be shared.  It builds off internal curiosity to spur creativity and learn without being taught.

Papert (1993) stresses building from material.  He also stresses physical computing which the ability to embed interactivity or intelligence into objects for everyday usage.  This can be manifested in the form of Legos or robotics kits.  Papert (1993) aspires to alter traditional relationships with computers and gaming.  “In the LOGO environment the relationship is reversed: The child, even at preschool ages, in control: The child programs the computer.” (p. 19) 

The “making tinkering, and engineering” concept (Martinez and Stager, 2013) applies to learning through gaming with the gamer using the device to exercises the processes in this theory.  Games allow for the gamer to “make” solutions to potential real world problems.  Curiosity allows for tinkering or ideas and hypotheses to eventually create something (engineer) tangible.

Barab, Gresalfi, and Ingram-Goble (2010) have developed a theory of transformational play is based on Dewey and Bentley’s Theory of Transaction (1960).  It is a continuum of shared knowledge.  Barab et al. suggest that transformational play is a transaction of knowledge among gamers and game designers.  “Our design therefore positions learners as active decision makers who use their understanding to inquire into particular circumstances and change them” (p. 526).  To be actively involved in transactional play, the learner must take on the role of protagonist, while employing conceptual understanding, to transform a problem-based fictional context (p. 526).  The player’s understanding of content as well as self to address social problems are important aspects of transformational play.

Barab et al. also conclude that to achieve transformational play, it requires a balance of tensions.  Quality of content must be tempered against quality of context and quality of person.  The gamer (quality of person) is the wildcard.  “A sense of detachment from the story can allow for more objective analysis and reflection, although it may also breed apathy and disengagement from the lesson.” (p. 533)

“If students have no embedded role, their experience may become impoverished, with a focus on memorization and grade attainment as opposed to meaningful content application” (p. 533).  There have been numerous studies that demonstrate significant learning gains through transformational play (Barab, Dodge et al, 2010; Warren, Dondlinger & Barab, 2009), however, very little of the research speaks specifically to how gamers learn.

An Exploratory Review of Design Principles in Constructivist Gaming Learning Environments (Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009) is an observation of a qualitative study focusing on 12 design principles:  Probing, Distributed, Multiple Routes, Practice, Psychosocial Moratorium, Regime of Competence, Self-Knowledge, Collective Knowledge, Engaging, User Interface Ease of Use, On Demand and Just-in-Time Tutorial, and Achievement.  Players were observed playing Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs).

Principle 1, Probing Principle, encourages the student to create hypotheses and test them.  In gaming, a player may come up with a strategy to overcome a difficult level or perform a task.  Through trial and error, this hypothesis is tested therefore creating knowledge.

In Principle 2, Distributed Principle, “learners should find growth and knowledge in their interactions with other learners, technology, context, objects, and tools”.  This is not much different from learning in a physical environment other than a virtual one is presumably safer.  But the interaction is what creates an environment of learning.

In regards to gaming and learning, Multiple Routes Principle (Principle 3) speaks to the essence of it.  “There should be more than one way for learners to progress, encouraging them to make decisions and solve problems” (Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009, p. 290)  Gaming makes learning a fluid transaction where students are not just subject to learning by rote or accessing knowledge through a step action drill.  Specifically, proper gaming allows for different styles of learning.  Problems can be approached in different manners for successful results.  The narrative, non-player characters (NPCs), and interaction with objects within the game allow for gamers to solve problems.

The Practice Principle (Principle 4) allows for a learner to try out new tactics without necessarily failing in the game.  This allows for a player to learn new things.  The gamer will not be subject to losing points or starting from the beginning.

Principle 5, Psychosocial Moratorium Principle, is similar to the 4th in that it speaks to the ability to try new ideas in the form of practice before trying in a game setting where points can be won or lost.

Principle 6, Regime of Competence Principle, is the scaffolding in gaming.  “Learners should be challenged to push beyond their comfort/ability zone, but not to an extent that is unsafe or unattainable” (Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009, p. 291).  A game can assess in game performance to allow for some difficulty without totally diminishing the confidence of the gamer.  Once the gamer has shown an adequate level of mastery, he/she can progress to more challenging levels.

Principle 7 is the Self-Knowledge Principle.  It is one of self-assessment for future reference.  “Players should learn about themselves and their current and potential capacities” (Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009, p. 291).  Self-knowledge allows for gamers to obtain knowledge and competency from completing tasks.

In Principle 8, the Collective Knowledge Principle, players accumulate knowledge by observing the play of others.  En masse, they build a “repository of useful knowledge”.  As games have a following, there are discussion boards and other virtual venues for correspondence on strategy and ideas on in game tactics.  Interaction allows for a broad knowledge in MMOGs.

The Engaging Principle is what compels a gamer to play.  It is a non-learning principle but important nevertheless.  The premise is to make education fun and not an arduous chore that requires cajoling.  To adequately achieve the intent of this principle, one must know the target audience.  For example, there are MMOGs that focus on combat situations or fighting situations to appeal to young males.

Principle 10, User-Interface Ease of Use Principle is a common sense approach to learning in gaming but can be forgotten if not assessed properly.  “A poorly designed use interface (UI) will frustrate and anger players, regardless of the type of game”.  The controller or arrows on a keyboard to maneuver of the games characters must logically move in the direction it is moving.  Sometimes, it requires specific knowledge to games.  For example, Nintendo games in the late 1980s had a “goofy foot” approach to maneuvering characters performing skateboard or surfing functions which would be counterintuitive to someone that has never physically performed such a function outside of virtual gaming.

The goofy foot concept applies to Principle 11, On-Demand and Just-in-Time Tutorial Principle.  “Game tutorials should aid players in learning the game mechanics and user interface while they are playing, exploring, or interacting with the environment”.  While the goofy foot concept is unique to skateboarding, it is not necessarily exclusive.  Someone that has never performed such a function can learn and apply it physically and virtually.  In sports games, a similar approach is used in practice games or changing the level of skill from novice to expert.  “Make the tutorial provide feedback to players, when mistakes are being made” (p. 292).  Feedback is rather immediate in sports games.  Success and failure is manifested in terms of points, penalties, fouls, etc.

Principle 12, the Achievement Principle, are the perpetual and visible awards in the process of gaming.  The notion is that by achieving mastery, the gamer will want to continue to build on mastered skills.            

Rosario and Widmeyer (2009) performed a study on five MMOGs and two educational games testing the 12 aforementioned principles.  What was concluded was that not all principles are supported at the same level.  While not allowing all principles to be equally applied, MMOGs and educational games allowed for students to learn in a highly engaging safe environment to test hypotheses.  The study is lacking in quantitative analysis.  Rosario and Widmeyer suggest that more studies will be needed including more games to have statistical significance.  In the observation, the sample is limited to one student from undergrad, masters, and doctoral level of education.

Han (2015) explores gaming and learning theory in Gamified Pedagogy: From Gaming Theory to Creating a Self-Motivated Learning Environment in Studio Art.  He explores ways to increase student interest in learning three dimensional (3-D) animation.  Han develops a theory of gamified pedagogy through his research.  The premise is that students are able to perform advanced tasks by developing basic skills.

Gamification is “using game design elements in non-game contexts to motivate and increase user activity and retention” (Deterring et al., 2011).  While primarily used in training employees, Han uses gamification to come up with solutions to improve learner engagement with the curriculum.  Specifically he asks, “What are the gaming elements that cause student attraction to gaming and makes students willing to spend so much time on gaming?” and “what is gamified pedagogy?” (p. 258).

Han concludes that gaming pedagogy consists of seven elements which are:

1.                  The teacher should use a spiral curriculum.

2.                  The teacher and student should set clear short-term goals.

3.                  The students should have the chance to resubmit their projects.

4.                  The students should be able to learn at their own pace.

5.                  The teacher should provide a safety net for students to practice without embarrassment.

6.                  The teacher should provide a space for students to establish a learning a community.

7.                  The teacher should provide a showcase for students to exhibit their own selected works.

Han also concludes that art studio courses are suitable for the application of gamified pedagogy.  All seven elements can be utilized to encourage self-motivation in students.

Becker (2007) explores the technology gap between students and their instructors.  Citing a lack of preparation teachers are using technology solely for administrative purposes and not to enhance learning or the educational environment.  “It is critical to prepare teachers to use technology effectively in the classroom and developments in technology continue to move faster than almost any other field” (Becker, 2007, p. 480).  Becker suggests that gaming be used a tool to enhance classroom instruction.  Gaming can be used to bridge technological gaps between teacher and student.  “The current generation is growing up with a pastime that demands interaction.” (p. 485).  

Becker uses FIFA World Cup Soccer to facilitate interaction in an English as a Second Language classroom.  The informal yet responsive atmosphere makes it possible for students and teacher to interact in a learning environment that is familiar yet has enough scaffolding to encourage development among all gamers

Design-based research (Barab & Squire, 2004) seems to be a natural evolution of transformational play to capture the essence of learning through gaming.  The main theme to design-based research is to move beyond the understanding of leaning as it naturally occurs. (Barab et al, 2010) to creating interventions that alter existing conditions presumably for the better.  Advances in technology are creating new parameters by which transformational play can communicate learning and conceptualizing abstract ideas.

There needs to be more longitudinal research and observations in a variety of venues and formats to formulate grounded theory on how the modern day learner/gamer acquires and processes knowledge, epistemologically.  “Future studies should be conducted at other institutions and with learners in other developmental classifications” (Burgess & Ice, 2011, p. 446).

Common themes in learning through gaming are safe learning environment, proper scaffolding, and creation of games that capture and maintain interest.  In the gaming environment, the players must feel safe enough to take chances and explore.  Failure may occur, but it is not detrimental to the point that a player no longer desires to continue playing or is required to start at the beginning or a point that makes taking chances prohibitive.  Gaming has to also be able to develop gamers by having programs that are challenging yet enhance skills.  Game/user interface must have proper aesthetics to capture the interest of gamers.  Games that have educational value should not be “educational games”.  By learning through gaming, the idea is that learning can occur in non-tradition learning environments.  One does not have to be in a classroom to achieve Csíkszentmihályi Flow (2014) in a classroom.  This is possible through gaming.

References

Barab, S., & Squire, K. (2004). Design-Based Research: Putting a Stake in the Ground. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1-14. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1301_1

Barab, S. A., Gresalfi, M., & Ingram-Goble, A. (2010). Transformational Play: Using Games to Position Person, Content, and Context. Educational Researcher, 39(7), 525-536. doi:10.3102/0013189x10386593

Barab, S. A., Gresalfi, M., Dodge, T., & Ingram-Goble, A. (2010). Narratizing Disciplines and Disciplinizing Narratives. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 2(1), 17-30. doi:10.4018/jgcms.2010010102

Becker, K. (2007). Digital game-based learning once removed: Teaching teachers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 478-488. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00711.x

Bellochi, A. (2012). Practical considerations for integrating alternate reality gaming into science education. Teaching Science, 58(4), December, 43-46.

Burgess, M. L., & Ice, P. (2011). Optimal Experience in Virtual Environments among College Level Developmental Readers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 44(4), 429-451. doi:10.2190/ec.44.4.d

Burgess, M. L., & Ice, P. (2011). Optimal Experience in Virtual Environments among College Level Developmental Readers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 44(4), 429-451. doi:10.2190/ec.44.4.d

Clark, A. C., & Ernst, J. V. (2009). Gaming in technology education. The Technology Teacher, (February), 21-26.