Rationality of Poverty

I was having a discussion with a friend on why friends that we grew up with make the decisions they make and why they can not see beyond the neighborhood or local community.  The Central Valley is very poor.  I call this phenomena the rationality of poverty.  Being impoverished can dictate a lot of choices and the immediate need for food and shelter can drive decisionmaking where, to the outside eye, the decisions look illogical.  There becomes a point where the decision making methodology becomes hardwired in our day to day actions.  I came to this realization when I go to fill gas in my car and how I may drive another block or mile to save another penny a gallon.  That makes no sense but in the rationality of poverty, it makes sense to save all that you can.

Developping the Talented Tenth versus a Functional Vocational Society Through Education

What is the role of education?  “Education” in French translates “to raise” a child.  Is that what a system is supposed to be doing?  And if so, is it doing a good job of that?  Fundamentally, is education for society or is it for the development of the individual?  In terms of resourcing and funding an educational system, who is the primary benefactor of the education system?  We know that, theoretically, an education system should afford all students an opportunity to be successful but one must question whether the role of education should benefit society.  Outside the United States and in other developed nations, the education systems have a role in benefiting those societies.  While higher education may be free or much more affordable than the United States, there are limitations on who has access.  The reason is not to be punitive but rather to address the needs of the nation.  There is a need for professionals in a myriad of occupations and the education systems of these countries address that.  Only so many students will get into higher education just as there will only be so many apprentices to learn carpentry.  School is a method to “educate” the children to build capacity within the national interests.  Juxtaposed to the United States where there really is no cap or limits on who can access higher education.  Education is seen more in the lens of a personal benefit; a social equalizer.  American schools are utilized as a form of equality and equity.  If one fails to access or take advantage of educational opportunity it is more of a personal choice in light of a European model where only so many lawyers, doctors, and clocksmiths may be needed to keep society function.

   

School budgets are a reflection of a community’s values.  The money will be allocated to either what matters or what is mandated by government.  Equity and equality drive a lot of the budgets in California which leads to the idea of personal development.  The equity vs equality debate is not much different than the W.E.B DuBois versus Booker T. Washington debates of 100 years ago.  Do we want to fund the “Talented Tenth” (DuBois, 1903) or do we want to build capacity in society by teaching life and professional skills (Washington, 1901)?  The DuBois (1903) method is more focused on the individual in hopes of finding society’s brightest which will then lift up others and, therefore, improve society.  Washington’s (1901) method is more of exponential capacity building.  By allocating resources to developing many needed occupations, education is being used to ensure that a community is functional.

A focus on allocating resources based on standardized testing is problematic in that one separate but equal system is being replaced by another.  While race was the primary focus of segregation and offering inferior education to a class of students so too is what happens when testing is used to justify limiting resources to one group for that of another.  Especially when the outcomes are similar to what they were under a race based allocation system. 

When it comes to budgeting and fairly allocating resources, leadership must have values and priorities beyond metrics which are inherently biased.  Regardless of what the data says, it can never supersede the equal protection clause of the Constitution nor does it overturn the Brown vs. Board (1954) decision.  Those are codified values which require a form of equality and equity in how budgets are planned and how we educate our children.      

Rethinking Society with an Aging Baby Boomer Population

With more people over the age of 65 than under the age of 5 (for the first time in history) we need to rethink our values as a society.  How will we care for the aging population?  I think creating public service opportunities focus specifically on caring for an aging population is something we should consider.  Also, how will we fund are current priorities (i.e. military spending, social security, pensions)?  

Fresno State Gender Equity in Student Aid

Fresno State student aid for women and men’s is about the same.  While spending for women’s teams has increased and, in recent years, has exceeded the men’s team it still is not reflective of equity.  $2,697,380 was spent on men’s teams in 2014 while only $2,669,639 was spent on women’s teams.  This is also factoring in that there were 233 ($11,457.68 per student athlete) women participants in athletics compared to 212 ($12,723.49 per student athlete).

    

Fresno State Athletic Department Expenses by gender vs Mountain West Conference

There is a disparity in the expenses of men’s and women’s teams, as well.  In 2003, the disparity gap is $5.6 million and balloons to $6.9 million in 2012.  An explanation can be the cost of equipment (i.e. football) is the reason for the disparities in expenses but the gap widens in 2014 in relation to 2003.  Spending has increased for men’s and women’s teams but the rate of increase favors the women (80% to 50%).  The expenses of men’s team is almost double that of the women’s teams, historically.

Fresno State’s answer to the discrimination lawsuits has been to increase spending in gender neutral expenses.  Athletic departments allocate funds to men’s and women’s teams but they also have expenses that apply to the department as a whole.  The data suggest that Fresno State used a “gender neutral” approach to remedy gender equity.  Instead of specifically allocating funds to women’s programs, facilities, and coaching salaries, monies have been allocated to resources that benefit the entire department.  Philosophically, the Athletic Department may see the solution as to not recognize gender or differences as a solution to systemic discrimination and denial of gender equity.

Fresno State has taken action to address gender equity at their institution but it has still failed to reach equality in many factions.  Fresno State has added women sports over the 25 years since the inception of the OCR investigation and also eliminated men’s sports.  The failure is in its commitment to uphold its Action Plan to address the lack of equity.  Also, Fresno State went to extra measures to obstruct chances to ameliorate in gender equity status yet ignored internal complaints and advice of its administrators.  The data has also shown that when they are subject to litigation, the disparities in wages and resources between men’s and women’s teams improves.  Fresno State still needs to examine and refine its courses of action and how it addresses gender equity in its athletic department.

Fresno State Women's and Men's Head Coaching Salaries

Looking at Fresno State’s head coaching salaries shows a disparity that is evident in the quest for gender equity.  When scrutinizing the data further, what is apparent is that Fresno State’s head coaching salaries are the norm for the Mountain West Conference.  From 2006-08, their salaries are above the conference average (it should be noted that there were not yet a member of the Mountain West Conference).  By 2012, the head coaching salaries for men’s and women’s teams (and salary disparity) are similar.  Historically, Fresno State coaches were paid above the conference average but Fresno State women’s salaries have decreased thus increasing the gap between men’s and women’s teams head coaches.

There is a disparity in the expenses of men’s and women’s teams, as well.  In 2003, the disparity gap is $5.6 million and balloons to $6.9 million in 2012.  An explanation can be the cost of equipment (i.e. football) is the reason for the disparities in expenses but the gap widens in 2014 in relation to 2003.  Spending has increased for men’s and women’s teams but the rate of increase favors the women (80% to 50%).  The expenses of men’s team is almost double that of the women’s teams, historically.

Bryan Pagliano and the Missing PST Files

Where are Bryan Pagliano's emails? The error in finding the missing pst files is probably in the data transfer process.  When you transfer files to another drive, outlook pst files normally don't transfer over.  You have to manually export them from the appdata file in the end user's Outlook folder.  I am thinking that is what happen with Bryan Pagliano's missing emails.  he saved them in a folder he added to his government account and when they backed up the files, they never moved over the hidden pst files.  The solution is to find the device that he used and to extract them off his files...hopefully the device hasn't been re-imaged.

The Myths of Accessibility and Equity in California Higher Education

Contrary to popular opinion, public higher education in CA is accessible.  Despite all the funds available to address issues of equity, the fact remains that between the 113 community colleges and 23 CSU schools, just about anyone can get into college and have opportunity to pursue an undergraduate degree.  The system that has some issues with accessibility is the UC system.

With the recent audit coming out showing that as little 16% of CA residents were being admitted to UCLA as freshmen, it raises the question of what the role of UCs are in public education.  While they are autonomous in how they operate, the UCLAs and UC Berkeleys of the world present a bit of a false hope to the average student in CA.  Unless a student is a valedictorian with straight As there is very little to no chance of gaining admission.



The role of the CA Master Plan must be challenged.  It seems to merely maintain a pecking order limiting the access and roles of community colleges and CSU schools.  Community colleges are trying to confer baccalaureate degrees and we have already seen the political pushback limiting BA/BS to only 15 campuses.  Also within the CSU system, you see there are no professional schools or Ph.D programs (Some schools confer Ed.D and DPT degrees).  The Master plan puts the aforementioned schools in their place. UC is king and everyone else is just happy to be able to play.

When are CSU leaders going to challenge the system?  How hard would it be for Fresno State to form an alliance with San Joaquin College of Law to house a law school or for CSU Bakersfield to team up with Kern Medical Center to make it a teaching center for future doctors (KMC already has an agreement with Ross University School of Medicine)?  The limitations are the Master Plan, which is a guideline, and the mentality of the current leadership in CA higher ed.  Unfortunately, this limits access to professional schools in the Central Valley and it also limits intellectual capacity in those regions.

Year after year, Central Valley cities such as Visalia, Fresno, Bakersfield, and Salinas are christened the lease educated cities in America.  I would argue this is by the historical design of the Central Valley being designed to house oil and agriculture.  There has been little incentive to innovate or grow outside of this comfortable box which guarantees poverty and dependence for generations.  By building professional schools, they would encourage intellectuals to move to the region as well as it would retain local students seeking a career in those fields.

Some CSU leader is going to have to have the proverbial balls to be brash and daring.  The plight of the valley can not change without change agents.  It needs people to think strategically and systematically make changes that encourage intellect, thought, and, more importantly, build capacity in the Central Valley of California.

NCAA Misconduct

Problems are manifested in NCAA violations and misconduct.  Lack of oversight is the structural deficiency.  It is steeped in the misguided belief that just placing good people in the right positions will ensure compliance.  Good people are human.  A structure can be a rigid a flexible as leaders want it to be.  A structure can mitigate human error and save the individual from bad decisions that would effectively hurt the organization.

 Humphreys and Ruseski (2009) conclude in a study that elite private schools, service academies, and schools from low profile conferences were least likely to cheat.  The study also concludes that penalties of “usual suspects” were lessened by self-reporting. 

Mark P. Pritchard and Rick Burton (2014) research factors that motivate compliance in.  Deontological ethics maintain that moral standards about the right or wrong of an action depend on its intrinsic qualities, not on the nature of its consequences.  DE is intrinsic motivation.  Teleological ethics is a case of the ends justifying the means.  Essentially, external factors can be the impetus of motivation.  In terms of compliance, these theoretical principles can help to understand what ensures compliance within an athletic program. “Some studies observe that relying on rewards and punishments, ‘sticks and carrots’, for ethical conduct ends up leading employees to operate at Kohlberg’s lowest level of moral reasoning.” (Pritchard & Burton, 2014, p. 94) suggesting that individuals obey rules for fear of the consequences (as opposed to deviating from an internal moral compass).  

College Athletics and the Power of Brand Logic

The 2nd assumption of structural framing is that organizations increase efficiency and enhance performance through specialization and appropriate division of labor (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p. 47).  To “enhance performance” or, in this case, ensure compliance, there needs to be personnel solely dedicated to enforcing and overseeing standards.  

They must also fall outside of organizational control of the athletic department (i.e. appropriate division of labor).  The outside control speaks to the necessary inherent distrust.  There are several anecdotal cases that support the need for checks and balances.  There are academic institutions, such as Southern Methodist University in the 1980s that could not control its football program and was habitually afoul of NCAA compliance.  On the other hand, there were relatively clean programs.  There were programs that prided themselves on the simple that their student athletes graduated and did things the right way.  Sometimes, the semblance of compliance is in stark contrast to reality.  This was Penn State University.

Penn State was a beacon in college athletics due to the fact it incurred no sanctions or major violations.  It was one of the few Division I programs to have this distinction.  Unfortunately, the symbolism did not reflect reality.  Jerry Sandusky, an assistant coach, was using the pristine image of the athletic program to partake in misconduct on a criminal level.  Sandusky was molesting and sexually assaulting children on the Penn State campus.  Not only did Sandusky have carte blanche to utilize the campus and its facilities for ill will, Joe Paterno, the head coach, and senior leadership at State College had knowledge of this misconduct and failed to act on it (which was the NCAA infraction). 

Paterno, a coach of over 46 years, did great things for college athletics as a whole.  A great program, that he helped build, displace too much trust in one person (several people, actually).  There was not enough appropriate oversight to address unethical behavior and misconduct.  The overseers had a vested interest in not divulging information contrary to the image that was Penn State athletics.

Proffitt and Corrigan (2012), question “brand logic” that seems to have taken precedence over compliance in college athletics.  They contend that the desire for Penn State University to maintain its pristine persona facilitated Sandusky’s egregious behavior of sexually abusing children to continue with impunity.  “What needs further interrogation, though, is not the consequences of the tragedy for this brand and the athletic-educational institution for which it stands, but the extent to which a ‘brand logic’ contributed to or shaped university officials decisions” (2012, p. 322) Leadership at the highest levels had knowledge of impropriety (an assistant coach witnessed misconduct and notified them) yet did nothing to address it.  In conjunction with ethics and professionalism, it can be argued that the Penn State leadership also had a fiduciary duty to protect children on its campus.

Proffitt’s and Corrigan’s focus is not necessarily on individuals, per se, but on “corporatized” (i.e. structural) motivations.  “The football teams $72.7 million in 2010 revenue is but one indicator of the brand’s value to the university” (2012, p. 323) The lack of focus on the leadership (or lack thereof) at the highest levels is not to justify their actions but critique the convenient structure in collegiate athletics that make it easier to unethical choices. “The pressures  facing intercollegiate athletics---be self-supporting, win, and reflect well on the university---mean that university and athletics administrators constantly have to take brand logic into their decision-making” (2012, p. 323)

Proffitt and Corrigan (2012) raised some interesting points regarding the need for schools to be self-supporting.  Only 20-30 athletic programs generate enough revenue to cover annual expenses.  Penn State is one of the few schools to operate at a sustainable level without relying on the school’s general fund or student fees generating revenues of $106.6 million and expenditures of $88 million.  But the fact that so few schools are self-sustaining speaks to the need to feed the proverbial beast.  The need to seek more revenue may lend to brand logic being the driver of decisions.  It would not be in the interest of Penn State to hurt the branding of “JoePa Mugs” and Nittany Lion sweaters.  Penn State ranked in the top ten schools in royalties and from merchandise by Collegiate Licensing Company (Proffitt & Corrigan, 2012).  It is fair to assume that protecting the brand was in Penn State’s interest.  In fact, the university hired Ketchum, a global public relations firm, to protect its brand.  Quinnipiac University president opines, “If a faculty member with a child had done that same thing, or a dean or a vice president or president, I don’t think it would have been a close call that it would have been turned over to the police and be handled as a criminal manner”.  The structure of Penn State allowed the pressures of profit and prestige to supersede compliance.

The NCAA, Amorality, and the Disincentivization of College Athletics

Randy R. Grant, John C. Leadley, and Zenon X. Zygmont (2013) hold a position along the lines of Piquero (2012) but from a coaches’ perspective.  They are concluding that with coaches’ salaries being so great, the incentive is there for them to cheat.  Nick Saban, University of Alabama football head coach, is the highest paid coach at $5.2 million.  The average salary for a Division I football head coach is $1.36 million (2013, p. 61).

Academic goals are not incentivized on the same scale as winning.  For example, University of Oklahoma football coach Bob Stoops receives a bonus of $10,000 for a 70% graduation rate but receives $150,000 for winning the national championship (Grant et al., 2013, p.63).  The priorities seem pretty clear when quantified in dollars and cents.  “Rhetoric about academic goals does not hold up to close scrutiny.” (Grant et al., 2013, p. 63)  Tyrone Willingham, a well-liked coach at Notre Dame that received praise from his boss, Athletic Director Kevin White, for running a clean program but was subsequently fired for lack of wins (overall record of 19-12).  White states that, “from Sunday through Friday our football program has exceeded all expectations, in every way.  We have not madethe progress on the field that we need to make.”  

College Athletic Programs and Social Deviancy

How does an Athletic Director create a compliant and ethical athletic program?  From a framing perspective (Bolman & Deal, 2008) it will enable different methods in which to come up with a solution.  Is compliance an issue due to people or is it the organization (human resource vs. structural framing)?  Perhaps it’s an issue of culture and values or institutional/personal agendas (symbolic vs political framing).   From framing perspectives, there are various solutions on how to address the issue of compliance.  Brad Humphreys (2009) views the answer to compliance as a human resource framed solution.  Proffitt and Corrigan (2012) allude to inadequate structural framing as a reason that programs are violate National College Athletic Association (NCAA) bylaws.

In Organizational Theory, human resource framing would view the answer to compliance as people driven.  An athletic program would have the right athletic director, coaches, staff, and student-athletes to ensure no violations occur at the institution.  In NCAA Rule Infractions, Humphreys makes the argument that student athletes are no more deviant than general society (2012).  He surmises that the answer to ensuring a compliant program would be to find student-athletes that value amateurism.  Humphreys (2009) doesn’t view student-athletes as the problem as much as he does the self-interested and capricious nature of the NCAA.  “The NCAA has clear and strong economic interests in maintaining the existing cartel agreement and its exemption from labor and antitrust law”. (2012, p. 711)  There is a structural frame response to Humphreys’ critique of the NCAA, however.  He does not view coaches and student athletes as “bad” as much as he sees the rules (i.e. the structure) as arcane and self-serving.  There is a rule enforcement disconnect “that punishes a 21-year-old for accepting a free drink in a local bar” juxtaposed to coaches earning salaries in excess of $4million (2012, p. 711)

Piquero (2012) hypothesizes that due to the current temptations (i.e. access) student-athletes face, infractions would be inevitable.  Structural framing would have to address an assumption that student athletes face more temptation than average “non-college athletes”.  Again, Piquero (2012) is critical of the rules that govern compliance yet not as much on student-athletes violating rules.  The life of student-athletes is so unique.  “Student-athletes live in two college contexts, one organized around the traditional college experience and a unique one organized around athletics.”(p. 715) Piquero argues that opportunity for deviancy is actually higher for athletes yet they offend on levels similar to traditional students.  A 2011 Sports Illustrated investigation conducted on every player on opening day rosters of the preseason 2010 top 25 showed that 7% of players had a criminal record (Piquero, 2012, p. 715).  Piquero argues that by being held to a higher standard, it creates an artificially higher standard of deviance in student-athletes.

What is considered deviant is a much higher level of scrutiny than typical delinquent behavior of traditional students.  Not only do laws and student code of conducts apply but so do NCAA bylaws.  “If a non-student athlete would receive a free meal or t-shirt, then it would unlikely be illegal, but it if a student-athlete received a free meal or free t-shirt during the course (or as a result of) their occupational status, then it would likely be considered an NCAA violation” (Piquero, 2012, 715).  This does not excuse student-athletes of committing infractions but, rather, gives the reader better insight into the rules and that “deviancy” doesn’t necessarily equate to a bad or untrustworthy person.  There is context to compliance in collegiate athletics that must be considered.

To better clarify his position, Piquero (2012) makes parallels of NCAA infractions to corporate/organizational crime.  “Researchers have routinely found that although microlevel factors are important for understanding corporate offending, so too are macrolevel factors as well as general cultural influences that specific to the pressures and realities of the business world” (2012, p. 715)  He asserts that violations are only made possible by the fact that these student-athletes have an exclusive type of access.  Would a traditional student of modest means at USC have access to front row tickets to an NBA playoff game as OJ Mayo? (Katz, 2008)  Student-athletes have exclusive access in the context of their celebrity.

Piquero’s solutions to ensuring compliance are unrealistic.  He calls it the “two-prong policy”.  “The prevention of student-athlete misconduct needs to start as early in the life course as possible, largely because athletes need to be socialized in fair and ethical conduct and behavior.”(p. 719) He believes that receipt of goods for performance should not be the prize but wins and stats are the philosophical reward of “doing one’s job”.  Secondly, upon enrollment into college, student-athletes should be taught and assimilated into an ethical athletic culture.  “They should be tested early and often about NCAA rules, so that they are absolutely clear in what they are permitted to do and what they cannot do.”(2012, p. 719)  This is a symbolic frame point of view but how realistic or pragmatic is this?  Student-athletes will one day leave college and have professional careers (some even in professional sports).   Why would having the expectation of goods for performance not be a virtue?

When and How Did Colleges Lose Oversight of Athletics?

Originally, faculty were vested with the authority to control athletics and determine eligibility, however, scandals and negative coverage of college athletics created the need for more oversight of programs.  Although created in 1905 as an answer to regulating football, the NCAA had no real power to set the policy (and punish member institutions) for academic eligibility.  While there has always been impropriety in college athletics concerning eligibility that, in effect, is what has been the driver pushing the reform policies. 

The first documented college athletic scandal (Oriard, 2012) is of a rowing match between Harvard and Yale in 1896.  There was a protest by Yale over Harvard’s usage of a graduate student in athletic competition.  Despite protests, the student competed anyway and Harvard won the match.  From rowing competitions to eventually larger scandals in the 1950 regarding cheating and point shaving (West Point and the University of Kentucky, respectively) required colleges to explore their policies to codify institutional control over athletic programs. 

There is also the aspect of what college athletics does to change culture.  At the turn of the 20th century, 1-2% of Americans went to college (Oriard, 2012).  Athletics was a method to diversify and bring opportunity to groups of people that would otherwise not attend.  Sport was the method by which this was possible.  Oriard (2012) speaks to this dynamic suggesting that the changes in ethnic demographics of student athletes played into stereotypes of the dumb jock. 

“Football played a key role in democratizing American higher education, both actually and symbolically, as a predominantly WASP game celebrated in the nineteenth century for embodying the spirit of Anglo Saxon racial superiority began to be dominated by the sons of working of working class superiority began to be dominated by the sons of working class Irish, Italian, Polish, Slavic, and Jewish immigrants” (2012, p. 9)

             Some of the first questions concerning NCAA research centered on the question of freshman eligibility.  This question was raised from a policy perspective in reaction to scandals that in college athletics (Petr & McArdle, 2012).  The rationale was that by raising initial eligibility standards, it would bring integrity to major college sports (specifically, football and men’s basketball).  In 1983, Proposition 48 established NCAA eligibility standards for freshmen, however, it was not established based on empirical data.  The proposed reforms to take effect in the fall of 2016 is a commitment by university presidents to academic success by increasing eligibility standards based on quantitative research (Hosick & Sproull, 2012)   

Academic Research and Reform: A History of the Empirical Basis for NCAA Academic Policy (Petr & McArdle, 2012) explored factors that determine the success of incoming freshmen that are “initially eligible” (eligible for athletic competition upon matriculation at a NCAA member institution).  It was determined that high school core course grades better predict future academic success than standardized test scores.  What was also determined was that a combination of GPA from core courses (not extra-curricular) is a better predictor than either being used alone.  Petr and McArdle (2012) concluded that using GPA from a specific set of courses (core curriculum) is more accurate than utilizing overall GPA.

Paskus (2012) takes Petr and McArdle’s (2012) research further by analyzing the same data to determine outcomes of junior college transfers into four year institutions.  “We have learned that student-athlete transfers as a group are unlike two year transfers in the student body.  Only about one-third of two year transfers (Hackett & Sheridan, 2013) in the sports of football and men’s basketball met Division I IE [initial eligibility] standards coming out of high school”.  In other words, junior college transfers are already facing academic issues prior to being admitted into a four year institution.  Paskus’ (2012) analysis is what sets the new NCAA policy on academic eligibility effective in Fall 2016.  His research concludes that:

1.         By far the best predictor of student athlete success at the four year school is GPA at the two year school.  To succeed at the same rate as freshman non-transfers, the transfer must exhibit upwards of a 2.6 GPA at the two year school.

2.         GPA at the two year school are good predictors of four year college success to the extent they are not based on PE credits.  20% of two year transfers were transferring with twelve or more PE credits.

3.         Two year transfers who meet a minimum core curriculum at the two year school of six English, three math, and three science credits have ineligibility and failures that are half those of transfers who do not take such core academic classes.

The research is suggesting that GPA is a great indicator of academic success in college but standardized tests, give a clearer understanding.  

What is the Role of College Athletics?

The role of athletics on California’s community college campuses is an undefined gray area.  It is an ongoing debate in regards to limited resources and the broader mission of a higher education institution.  Leaders are balancing resources between athletic departments and the greater student body (in conjunction with the communities they serve).  In big time athletics, the revenue generation of programs can justify their existence but this is not the case in California’s 113 public community colleges.  As resources become more limited, educational leaders must question (and answer) the role of athletics in their institution.

Compliance and enforcement of policies is an essential component to athletics in community colleges.  College rules govern academic eligibility, ethics, and conduct of student athletes and programs.  There are incidents of egregious violations as in the case of the University of North Carolina or Penn State University which can be attributed to failures in leadership and enforcement.  There are also incidents in California community colleges that raise the question of compliance.  Bakersfield College had to vacate its 2012 state title for a myriad of California Community College Athletic Association (CCCAA) infractions.  Taft College eventually had to cut all of its athletic programs due to lawsuits, infractions, and lack of compliance (Evans, 2014).  No level of college athletics is immune from the ills of noncompliance or the lack of oversight.

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) has implemented reforms (effective Fall 2016) which community colleges must adhere to and adapt their policies to properly align.  Community college athletics directors and educational leaders must formulate rules and procedures to inform and support their student athletes to be eligible to transfer.  Under the new NCAA policy, community college transfers are required to have a 2.6 grade point average (GPA) in core courses and make sufficient progress towards a degree (15 core credits per semester) to be immediately eligible.  This policy change is supported by research (Paskus, 2012) stating that GPA is the most significant indicator in determining degree completion among student athletes transferring from community college to a four year institution.  The reforms on academic eligibility are historically significant because they are the first policy changes the NCAA has implemented that are supported by empirical research (Petr & McArdle, 2012).

Community college student athletes intending to participate in athletics fall into two categories as transfers to NCAA member institutions.  They are considered either Qualifiers or Non-Qualifiers.  Qualifiers are immediately eligible for athletic participation based on academic performance prior to full time higher education matriculation (i.e. high school).  They have already met the NCAA eligibility standards, which are based on GPA and SAT/ACT scores (sliding scale).  Non-Qualifiers are student athletes that do not meet academic eligibility requirements prior to higher education matriculation.  They are not eligible to immediately participate in NCAA Division I or II athletics (institutions that offer scholarships).  Non-Qualifiers attain NCAA initial eligibility status by graduating from a community college with an Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS) degree.

Previously, community college student athletes seeking to transfer to Division I or II institutions were required to successfully complete an average of 12 credits per full time semester with a 2.5 GPA (transferrable credits only).  The last semester prior to transfer, the transfer student was also required to have completed at least 6 credits.  Currently, a Qualifier is required to complete one full time semester while a Non-Qualifier is required to complete at least 3 full time semesters and attain an AA or AS degree (with at least 48 transferrable credits) prior to matriculation at an NCAA institution.

Under the new policy, Qualifiers and Non-Qualifiers are required to average 15 credits per full time semester.  The number of Physical Education (PE) classes that can transfer to NCAA member institutions has been limited to 2 credits.  Limiting PE classes prevents community college student athletes from augmenting their GPA by enrolling in “jock classes” to remain eligible for participation by requiring them to make progress towards a degree.  The biggest change in policy is the 2.6 GPA requirement in core classes (6 units in Math, 6 units in English, and 3 units in Science).  This GPA requirement is higher than the 2.3 GPA requirement for student athletes seeking athletic participation as Qualifiers out of high school and is the highest standard ever imposed on community college student athletes.  The NCAA reforms are requiring community colleges athletic programs to revisit policies, academic advising, and resources allocated to student athletes seeking to continue their athletic careers and, hopefully, attain an athletic scholarship.

California Higher Ed and the Master Plan

In 2016, what is the role of the Master Plan?  I think it has mostly outlived its usefulness and, also, the UC system was forward thinking in preserving its role in California Higher Education.  The Master Plan has effectively limited what CSUs can do as far as expanding their mission and providing accessibility to CA residents.


Historically, UC schools (Berkeley, UCLA, etc.) have been the creme de la creme.  They are full research institutions that are world renowned.  They have students from everywhere and they confer doctoral and professional degrees.  They also have competitive admission standards.  The CSU, on the other hand is more accessible with 23 institutions and being in parts of the state that historically had no higher ed institutions.  While being accessible, they are limited in what they may offer.  They do not confer professional degrees or Ph.Ds....this is a problem.  In 2016, CSUs are actually turning students away thus limiting their accessibility and it also can not offer professional degrees although there may be a medical or law school in the same town to form some type of alliance to host such a school.
There is also the fact that, until the passing of state bill AB 1440, graduates of California's 113 Community Colleges were not guaranteed admission nor were all of their credits guaranteed to ensure a reasonable graduation time (2 years).

Each school at all levels has autonomy to the point of making the Master Plan more of an advisory document than codified legislation. Schools operate as individual entities with very little or no regard for a cogent state policy to facilitate the conferring of degrees to CA residents.  The audit report that came out today shows how very little access that CA residents have to the UC.  It is statistically unattainable for most students.  The UC has made a business decision to admit out of state students to subsidize its education system for the few CA residents that actually have access!  Where do we go from here?




I say that we blow it up!  We need to acknowledge that the CA Master Plan no longer works or meets the needs of the state.  It is also discriminatory to the people of the Central Valley in that we do not have the same proximity and access to professional education and doctoral degrees as the UC that are mostly in Southern California or the Bay area.  By lessening the burden of the Master Plan, schools can form alliances with the other schools (regardless of current UC, CSU, CCC status).  There are poignant issues in CA education (alignment of curriculum, minority success rates, etc.) that can not be address in this current system.

                                                

California's leaders in higher education need to think of how to effect change under the current constraints.  Just because doesn't say that you can do it doesn't mean that it can't be done!  Specifically, I would like to see Fresno State reach out to San Joaquin College of Law to host the law school.  There is nothing that doesn't prohibit this.  It just takes the political will and a brash leader.  There are medical facilities which could form an alliance with CSUs.  But nobody is willing to take that leap of faith.  Who is going to be Superman?  Who is going to shake up the system?

Social Improvement Learning Theory (SILT): Combining Reconstructionism and Vygotsky’s Pedagogy

Social Improvement through Reconstructionism

            Social Improvement Learning Theory (SILT) is one which conceptualizes every learner as having distinct needs, and distinct potential strengths by which they could ultimately make productive changes to the community in which they reside. Reconstructionism provides the baseline by which the rationale for this learning theory is to be understood.  Reconstructionism is based on the premise that humanity can control its destiny through education to reform society to its desired outcome (Hill, 1997).  In this regard, and considering that it is a critical approach to learning, its application here is based on the normative goal of rendering the world a better place, and creating structures of mutual respect in relation to individual and collective self-actualization.  With this in mind, the purposes of a Reconstructionist approach to teaching and learning are to create educational structures which make improving social conditions possible. 

            Education within a SILT framework is always reform and focused on purpose.  From this aspect, the needs and capabilities of each individual are to be taken into account, as are their places in the collective and personal interests to derive an approach to learning which is symbiotic to needs, desires, and potentials.  By conceptualizing education in such fashion, it becomes possible to begin the work to achieve macro-scale social goals through micro-level learning processes.  The SILT approach is oriented to bringing about social change.  It takes into account the needs of both the collective and the individual learner in terms of charting relevant educational pathways.

Grounding itself in Reconstructionist theory, SILT is one which predicates the rationale underlying learning, either in the context of childhood learning or continuing adult education, as being oriented towards improving the structures of the social world which surround us. In this respect, it adopts a critical approach which bridges the gap between the macro and micro level structures of learning through the combination of Reconstructionism and Vygotsky’s approach to pedagogy. Beginning with the former, this theory is predicated upon the notion that the end goal of learning is always to empower learners so that they may think critically in a manner conducive to improving the structures of social life which surround them.  As such, the core of Reconstructionism, which is at the foundational core of this theory of knowledge, deems optimizing the social world as the logical extension of learning, and as this personal theory’s macro level raison d'être.

            Shifting to the micro level and engaging in an overview of Vygotsky’s approaches to cultural-historical psychology as well as the zone of proximal development, perhaps there are respective and bifurcated roles for each within SILT.  Beginning with the cultural-historical contingency, which lies at the heart of Vygotsky’s work, factors associated with globalization require that the cultural contingency inherent to learning be expanded so as to include a truly global component.  On this basis, critical thinkers and innovators of the future will absolutely need to be able to master cross-cultural differences to ensure success in a globalized and networked society.  In turn, the theory of proximal development informs SILT inasmuch as the scaffolding which emerges from it presents a graduated structure of learning germane to maximizing the potential of all individuals.  Writ-large, the combination of these elements can then emerge as a structure that facilitates maximizing the potential of learning in the twenty-first century’s demanding context.

Reconstructionism and the Baseline of Learning

            Reconstructionism embodies the baseline of SILT in that it provides an important macro level rationalization for the purpose of learning, itself.  In this regard, Multicultural Education: Reconstructionism Coming of Age Author T. Mathai Thomas (Teacher Education Quarterly, 1994) argues that the Reconstructionist approach is one which privileges the optimization of social structures, and the creation of structures of egalitarianism as the normative baseline of its approach to education.  With this in mind, the curricula derived from the Reconstructionist approach are ones which are premised on reforming the educational question so as to achieve social justice, equality, and other connected end-states.  Thomas (1994) proposes that, as a philosophy of learning, Reconstructionism is most important in that it provides an ultimate goal for the educational enterprise in the form of both individual and social betterment through the learning process.

            The utility of Reconstruction in this context derives from the rationale that it provides for education.  Thomas (1994) notes that in any educational context it is crucial to reconcile the macro level purposes of education with the micro level processes by which education and learning occur.  As such, Reconstructionism is of great utility here in that it provides a macro level rationale for educational enterprise.  By focusing on the betterment of society, and the manifold stakeholders, the Reconstructionist approach is one which is capable of not only encapsulating the pedagogical approaches by which learning takes place, but also of bringing about a common purpose for teachers and learners, alike.  Its embodiment of a macro level rationale for the purposes and end goals of education represents a necessary component of SILT.

Vygotsky and Cultural-Historical Psychology

Moving forward to micro level pedagogical structures, Vygotsky’s work represents one of the two foundational cornerstones of the presented SI theory of learning.  In this regard, Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of Cultural Mediation is an essential cornerstone of any culturally-contingent theory of learning.  Vygotsky’s theory proposes that the process of learning, always enshrined with a given cultural space, is predicated upon the degree to which a child or other learner is capable of gaining mastery of the intersubjective shared knowledge of their community (Mayer, 2008).  This process, which Vygotsky (1978) refers to as internalization, is one which is based on the development of practical knowledge allowing for the accomplishment of important social functions (Kozulin, 1990). With this knowledge being culturally-contingent in nature, Vygotsky (1978) proposes that the earliest and most elemental stages of learning are those which allow a learner to develop mastery of the baseline cultural functions which are necessary in their cultural space. (Fox & Reisconscente, 2008)

            Once internalization has been completed, Vygotsky (1978) argues that the process of critical thinking becomes enabled through appropriation of adult behavior and cultural norms.  In the context of internalization, the next logical step of its completion is the development of the critical thinking skills which requires a learner to innovate within the context of the cultural space in which they live.  With this in mind, Vygotsky’s insight, vis-à-vis appropriation, pertains to the manner in which it represents the juncture at which the learner moves from acting on the basis of internalized cultural codes and schemas to innovating, in terms of their own behavior, within the context of these structures.  “Only the mastery of abstraction, combined with advanced complex thinking, enables the child to progress to the formation of genuine concepts” (Vygotsky, 1986, p. 106).  Therefore, the appropriation phase, crucial to the development of the learner, is analogous to the development of critical thinking skills which all learners require to achieve the highest levels of cognition and development (Kozulin, 1990). Moreover, these serve to bring about the critical thinking-based innovation required in the context of any cultural or economic structure.

Vygotsky and the Zone of Proximal Development

            The theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1986) is central to the SILT philosophy.  Vygotsky uses this concept to denote the significant gap in which a learner’s development can be manifested between contexts where they are operating without assistance contra to being under the tutelage of a skilled instructor.  In this regard, Vygotsky (1986) rejects the notions of Constructivism, Behaviorism and Gestaltism which would otherwise create a critical and immutable relationship between development and learning (Kozulin, 1990).  Rather, Vygotsky (1986) argues that it is possible for learners to develop skills which go beyond their developmental level on the basis of the proposition that learning is imperative prior to development.

            Zone of Proximal Development is a theory which leads to the concept of scaffolding.  At its base, it refers to the fact that, in the development of any learning process, it is absolutely necessary to adjust the level of support provided to a learner.  There is no one “cookie cutter” method to learning or instruction.  Within the context of the cultural contingency of learning, it becomes apparent that the principle of scaffolding is one which implies that all learning activities must be tailored to the specific situation and potential of the individuals involved in the learning process.  With scaffolding relevant and applicable to both teachers and students in the nexus formed by the zone of proximal development affects both student potential and teacher capacity this graduated approach is one which takes into consideration the wide heterogeneity of capacities (and cultural factors) associated with both teaching and learning (Stone, 1998).  Ultimately, the insights regarding gradualism provided by the zone of proximal development are ones which dramatically affect the micro-level elements of the interconnected teaching and learning processes.

A Learning Philosophy in Practice

            Moving from the abstract to the pragmatic, the purpose of SILT is to reconcile the macro level element of Reconstructionism with the micro-level insights of Vygotsky’s work.  In this regard, SILT as laid out is one which seeks to build on the synergies existing between these two bodies of scholarship as to bridge the micro-macro gap in a feasible fashion.  In so doing, it deploys Vygotsky’s important micro level insights in a manner germane to reconciliation with the macro level purposes of Reconstructionism.  In sum, the focus on nexuses which is elaborated upon below is one which seeks to reconcile the purposes of education and learning with the micro level tools which are most ideal to maximizing the effectiveness of the learning process.  The approach presented below, combining Reconstructionism, cultural contingency and gradualism is one which seeks to construct learning as something which occurs, on the basis of purposefulness for the achievement of ultimate social and cultural goals.

Globalization and Learning

            Shifting to Vygotsky and the micro level processes of education associated with this approach, his work is incredibly important in the context of an emergent globalized economy and culture.  The focus on cultural-historical psychology, which lies at the heart of his work, is crucial to any modern theory of learning inasmuch as the cultural barriers which previously created distance between cultures have disappeared, and left behind great synergies of cross-cultural pollination.  On this basis, Vygotsky’s (1978) chief applicability to SILT pertains to the cross-cultural dynamics to which his work is capable of bringing structure.  Concerning this point, and under the premise that children increasingly require frameworks of learning which will be beneficial to integration within a global culture, Vygotsky’s concepts of internalization and appropriation become incredibly relevant to teaching and learning.  Indeed, it will be crucial that teachers increasingly work to build pedagogical structures that are imperative to integrating multiple sources of culturally-contingent knowledge into their pedagogies.

            It is specifically the linkages between integration and appropriation which will be of the greatest importance to the SILT learning process. 

Should the next generation of learners be able to think critically within the context of a globalized economy and culture, it will be vital that its members be able to draw on a multitude of cultural schemas and constructs.  The tasks of teaching and learning will grow in their holism, through the lens provided by Vygotsky as to attain a peak wherein the concept of learning, culturally-contingent in nature, sees its boundaries expanded to include a holistic and global component.  From this foundation, it will become possible for a new generation of learners, immersed in a global culture, to procure the most relevant elements of their surroundings as well as their learning, and innovate through the appropriation which lies at the core of Vygotsky’s theory.  In optimizing the fortunes of the collective and the conditions within it, it becomes crucial to enlarge the cultural spaces in which teaching and learning efforts take place so as to reflect the heterogeneous realities of undertaking teaching and learning programs in a globalized world.

Scaffolding and Proximal Development

            Based on Zones of Proximal Development (and the scaffolding approach which emerges from it), SILT is one which is graduated in its core nature.  In the context of the purpose orientation and cultural contingency discussed above, it remains imperative that individual learners are provided with the structures of pedagogical intervention most germane to their success.  As such, the tailored approach of scaffolding, associated with the notion of proximal development, is one which seeks to provide all individual learners with the specific interventions they may require on the basis of the combination of their life goals, abilities, and societal needs.  Therefore, the use of scaffolding is meant to reverse the dynamics associated with the anonymity which seems to currently pervade society’s assembly line educational structure.  So that every individual can be allowed to reach their full potential, it becomes necessary that educational interventions, designed to optimize learning, be specifically tailored to those who are receiving them.

            The importance of knowing the learner and their needs is of the utmost importance within the SILT micro level educational paradigm.  Due to the specificity of the approach proposed herein, it emerges as crucial that educational platforms be distinctly tailored to both the specific needs of the individual and the collective.  Given the latter’s relevance to the pro-social mission of Reconstructionist pedagogy, reconciling individual and collective needs, within the context of scaffolding, is absolutely critical to the success of this approach.  To achieve success in this regard, educators must work to consistently evaluate and adjust the interventions which they make use of in dealing with specific learners.  In seeking to optimally adjust these interventions, it becomes clear that the connections between teachers and learners must be continual, and constantly updated.

            Ultimately, and with critical thinking skills and abilities pertaining to pro-social innovation lying at the core of SILT, the scaffolding approach used here and mimicking Vygotsky’s transition from internalization to appropriation must be designed to optimize learners’ abilities to make use of their culturally-contingent information in a sophisticated fashion.  Ultimately leading to the type of innovation which is necessary for both social progress as well as self-actualization, this continuous approach to developing critical thinking skills, and the ability to appropriate, represents the principal micro level focus of the learning theory advocated in favor of, here.  With this, continuous evaluation and adjustment must be the norm if individuals and the groups which they make up are to be the subjects of the types of innovation-driven reform which the Reconstructionist approach is so stringently focused upon achieving. (Thomas, 1994, p.74)

SILT in Practice

My familiarization with students is relatively limited as Classified Staff and as a Coach (1^st year in higher education).  However, I envision SILT being responsive to the individual academic needs of each student-athlete while allowing for cultural awareness and an educational perspective/experience outside of maintaining academic eligibility and developing athletic performance (My primary coaching duties).  Due to the lack of preparedness of most incoming athletes (48 of 65 in remediation), Vygotskian methods from a Reconstructionist perspective can be a method for amelioration.  Specifically, scaffolding the knowledge and skills on campus and within the athletic program can prepare students, academically. 

As a Head Coach, ideally, I would propose a system where students requiring remediation would redshirt (sit out a year from athletic participation) and focus on academics before devoting any time to athletics.  The systems are in place to apply the aforementioned method by way of National Collegiate Athletic Association rules, California Community College Athletic Association and West Hills College Coalinga policy (via redshirting); however, the pressures of college football make it a tough sell.  For example, a potential recruit can choose to go to another school that guarantees the chance to play immediately as a true freshman versus subjecting one’s self to an academics first philosophy as I am proposing. 

As a Head Coach or Athletic Director, I would require athletes to devote hours to study hall (limited by NCAA rules) and require sophomores to mentor incoming freshmen.  The Zones of Proximal Development concept will be utilized to socialize remedial student-athletes to the discipline that it takes to handle the rigors of college athletics combined with the expectation of academic success.  38 of the incoming 65 freshmen class have goals of transferring to a Division I university to continue their athletic careers (according West Hills College Coalinga Eligibility Data Sheets).  45 student-athletes are in remediation requiring them to either attend summer school to have a chance at graduating in 2 academic years or attending another semester after exhausting community college athletic eligibility.  To give West Hills College football players a realistic chance at realizing goals of Division I football from the standpoint of academic eligibility, an academic focus from admittance gives them a realistic chance (students athletes have 5 consecutive years to complete 4 seasons of Division I eligibility). 

The role of the instructional core in athletics is slightly different from the traditional sense in education.  It consists of student athlete, coach, and course load.  Ideally, all the pieces must work in conjunction to the benefit of the student-athlete.  In current application, it is geared towards the athletic program.  Students attending class and maintaining a minimum level academic performance allows for optimal results on the football field.  Using Reconstructionist perspective, the coach and course load can improve the student athletes in areas outside of athletics.  Team policy can be the catalyst to addressing remediation. 

SILT can also be a Reconstructionist method to a (my) desired end-state of de-emphasizing athletics in higher education.  Perhaps, wins and economics may be drivers of decision making in college athletics but what about the wellbeing of the student-athlete?  More importantly, what about the academic success of the student?  With SILT, the focus would not just be on the de-emphasis of athletics merely for academic altruism but for better student-athlete academic outcomes.  The goal would be not just staying eligible to play on Saturdays, but being a true asset to the student body and developing life skills.  West Hills College is a very small community college of 1200 students (westhillscollege.com/coalinga/about/why_choose_whc.asp) in rural Fresno County.  Realistically, cranking out future NFL talent is not feasible due to the dynamics of location, size of the program, and a less than stellar history wins and losses but producing student-athletes that can transfer as “fully academically qualified” and while being people of  character is possible.   SILT is a way to reach out to academically challenged student-athletes while also attempting to reform the current dynamics of college athletics.  

Conclusion

            In the end, the educational framework laid out here is an ambitious one.  Due to SILT having both macro and micro level aspirations, respectively pertaining to pro-social change and individual self-actualization, it seeks to form a nexus between the needs of the individual and those of the collective.  In this regard, the baseline of a macro level rationale set about by Reconstructionist Theory is one which serves the fundamental purpose of anchoring this learning theory, and of ultimately deriving the micro level approaches most convivial to successfully implementing its corollaries.  Reconstructionism gives SILT a unified purpose in that it seeks to reconcile individual learning objectives and achievements with the most important social goals which themselves serve to create conditions germane to economic, political, and social harmonization.

            With the micro level component inspired by the work of Vygotsky contributing to the achievement of this broader project, through the expansion of cultural referent objects and the gradualist approach to pedagogy elaborated above, SILT is also one which is virtuous because of its profound egalitarian connotations.  Adapting education and learning to the needs of different individuals, all the while considering the needs of the collective, this approach is one which pays heed to the full gamut of goals set forth by Reconstructionist pedagogy.  As such, it is an approach which has the potential to contribute to improving the world as much as it will serve to improve the learning outcomes of those studying under it. 

References

Fox, E., & Riconscente, M. (2008). Metacognition and self-regulation in James, Piaget, and Vygotsky. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 373-389. Chicago   

Hill, A. M. (1997). Reconstructionism in technology education. International Journal of Technology & Design Education, 7(1/2), 121-139.

Kozulin, A. (1990). Vygotsky's psychology: A biography of ideas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Mayer, S. J. (2008). Dewey's dynamic integration of Vygotsky and Piaget. Education and Culture, 24(2), 6-24.

Stone, C. (1998). The metaphor of scaffolding: Its utility for the field of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(4), 344-364.

Thomas, T.M. (1994). Multicultural education: Reconstructionism coming of age. Teacher Education Quarterly, 21(4), 71-78.

Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.